Theories and Pedagogy

SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING THEORIES

There are multiple theories on the processes of second language acquisition with some taking a psychological approach and others a sociocultural. Many of these theories have been based on the natural innate first language acquisition mechanisms that children use in their mother tongue (Levine & McCloskey, 2009, p. 9). Two notable theorists in the field include Stephen Krashen, with his five hypotheses and Lev Vygotsky's zone of proximal development. Below is a summary of these theories, giving you some insight into second language acquisition.

Krashen's Five Main Hypotheses
Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis - Students develop their second language by using it in natural communicative situations - There is little attention to grammatical forms - Language learning occurs in two conditions: acquisition leading to subconscious internalisation and rules leading to conscious learning - Recognises the need for meaningful communication	Natural Order Hypothesis - Learners acquire language rules in a predictable order - The order is prominent in acquisition (not explicit learning) of languages - Structures in the first language influence the order of morphemes in second language - This hypothesis Is not used to develop language curriculum
Input Hypothesis - Language input in oral language and reading is of primary importance for progress in second language - Krashen asserts that the best input is slightly above the student's current understanding. So the language is just above the student competence making it understandable yet challenging (i + 1, where i = language acquired and 1 = language one step beyond current level) - Teachers need to be careful that it is not too overwhelming for the students	Affective Filter Hypothesis - Students in a low-anxiety environment and have good self esteem have a lower affective filter and more open to input - Teachers need to be aware of the silent period, as the student will speak when ready and forcing them to speak can cause anxiety. Silence does not mean acquisition is not taking place
Monitor Hypothesis - Asserts that acquisition is primary to language development - That when students begin to write, they will reflect on formal rules of language and monitor themselves as they learn formal structure and requirements of language
Adapted from: Cook (1995), Levine & McCloskey (2009), Brown (2000) and Lightbown & Spada (2006).

(Lightbown & Spada, 2006)

Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development

A sociocultural perspective, Vygotsky's zone of proximal development (ZPD) states that cognitive development (such as language development) is a result of social interaction (Lightbown & Spada, 2006, p. 47).  This view is that learning occurs if a second language learner interacts with someone who is within their ZPD as the student is able to co-construct knowledge and perform at a higher level with the support of the other. The ZPD can be thought of as a metaphorical location where learners interact to construct knowledge. This theory is often compared to Krashen's Input Hypothesis and the interaction hypothesis which we will cover next.

Interactionist Position   
The interactionist position views second language acquisition as a process of interaction between native speakers and language learners. Interaction can lead to increased motivation, reduced anxiety over using language and practises negotiating of meaning (Levine & McCloskey, 2009, p.11). Working in pairs or small groups, students develop their language skills as well as content knowledge.

 
WHAT DO THESE THEORIES MEAN TO YOU?

Having the knowledge of these theories on second language acquisition is vital in teaching EAL/D students however is useless without understanding how this knowledge is applicable in the classroom with your students. One of the key aspects to take away from the above theories is the need for appropriate input. Students need to be surrounded by language that is comprehensible yet challenging so they remain engaged and continue to develop their English. Talking in extended complex sentences would result in EAL/D students not understanding and becoming disengaged. Another aspect to consider is the need to create a safe learning environment. Having a low anxiety atmosphere encourages students to take risks with language and become more open to input.The third aspect is the need for interaction! What better way is there to develop our language skills other than interacting with others? Here students will be able to work on their ability to comprehensibly express their meaning and develop their listening skills. Pairing native English speakers with EAL/D student also has many other benefits which are discussed below.

(Streeter n.d.)

Benefits of EAL/D Students
Views on EAL/D students being integrated within the mainstream context have changed throughout history from them being no different than mainstream students other than being 'migrant children' to them being a problem and having learning difficulties (Davison, 2000, p. 14). These views have generally been that of EAL/D students being a deficit to the class rather than beneficial. There are several reasons for this including teacher perceptions of the impact of EAL/D students inclusion in mainstream classes on themselves, impact of inclusion on the learning environment and teachers attitude and perceptions of EAL/D students (Reeves, 2006, p. 132).However, there are many benefits of having EAL/D students in your class.

•  EAL/D students can bring different perceptions, views and prior knowledge to class discussions
•  Teaches mainstream students values of cultural difference and celebrates cultural diversity
• Teaching practices that target EAL/D students also greatly benefits mainstream students (for example the explicit teaching of text types) 
• And many more!!!

The following video illustrates just how beneficial EAL/D students are in the classroom.

Key Points from Theories and Pedagogy

To have an inclusive threat free learning environment with EAL/D students in your classroom there are a couple of points to keep in mind when planning: 

• create a safe learning environment where ALL students have the opportunity to participate and engage with you and each other. When students are relaxed and feel they can contribute to the class, deeper learning of both content and language takes place. 
• It is important to identify opportunities to teach the language of your content area and included these opportunities in your planning. Say for example in your Geography class they need to write a scientific report. What are all the language aspects of writing a report? Do all your students know what the purpose and correct structure of a scientific report is?
• EAL/D students are just as capable of the same work as your mainstream students and it is important to avoid 'dumbing down' your expectations or tasks you set them. These students are just as capable of achieving the curriculum requirements, as long as they receive adequate scaffolding and support along the way. 

It is difficult to provide every student in your class with the best education possible, however it is our duty to try. It is through us continuing our own education and exploring every opportunity to do better that we get closer to becoming a super teacher!

Super Teacher (Hicks, n.d.)